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About this exhibit
Curators:
Thomas Fulton, Department of English, Rutgers University
Fernanda Perrone, Special Collections and University Archives, Rutgers University Libraries
Thanks largely to the work of J. Milton French (or "Milton"), Rutgers professor from 1940 to 1960, and to the generosity of donors and alumni, Rutgers owns an exceptionally large collection of Milton´s works. It is among the top five collections in American public academic libraries. This digital exhibition is based on a physical exhibition, John Milton and the Cultures of Print, on display at the Special Collections and University Archives Gallery at Rutgers University Libraries from February 3 to May 31, 2011. The complete catalog of this exhibition can be viewed here. The digital version represents this exhibition, but does not include every object or the complete text.
Introduction
John Milton was born in 1608 to a century of revolution — in politics, in print media, in science and the arts. By the time he died in 1674, Britain had experienced the governments of three different Stuart monarchs, the protectorate of Oliver Cromwell, and a few short-lived experiments in republican government. In the midst of this turbulent period, governmental controls on printing varied considerably, with the most profound release of censorship occurring in 1640–41, at the onset of the English Civil War, a war between Puritans and Anglicans, and between Parliamentarians and Royalists. But control of the press occurred during the wars and the Interregnum, and in part because of these political changes, the written word took an extraordinarily wide variety of forms, from short poems hand-written on a single manuscript leaf to printed treatises, from broadsides and incendiary pamphlets costing a few pennies to massive bound folios.
This exhibition of Milton´s writing represents the key moments in his long career in relation to the changing world of print and other forms of written expression. Milton´s early poetic career was interrupted in 1640 by civil wars that transformed England´s state from a hereditary monarchy into a republican experiment in government. During these turbulent years, Milton largely postponed his poetic aspirations to devote himself to polemical, theological, and historical prose. After the restoration of the English monarchy in 1660, the now blind poet produced his greatest masterpieces, among them the epic Paradise Lost. The epic was immediately hailed, in the words of the poet John Dryden, as "one of the most sublime poems this age or nation has produced."
Acknowledgements
This exhibition was made possible by a grant from the New Jersey Council for the Humanities, a state partner of the National Endowment for the Humanities. Any views, findings, conclusions or recommendations in the exhibition do not necessarily represent those of the National Endowment for the Humanities or the New Jersey Council for the Humanities.
We would like to thank Sam McDonald, Chad Mills and Carla Zimmerman of the Rutgers University Libraries for designing and mounting the digital exhibition.
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MILTON'S LIBRARY: Milton's personal letters show that his access to books came in part from... more
MILTON'S LIBRARY: Milton's personal letters show that his access to books came in part from libraries and borrowed books, but also from his own substantial collection, which he had amassed from books acquired at shops in London and Europe. Regrettably, unlike contemporaries whose libraries are still intact or whose collections can be reconstructed with shelf lists or signed books, few of Milton's actual books can be identified with certainty: there are extant only seven books from Milton's own library. This is probably because he stopped signing books quite early in his career. Yet, like many early modern writers and readers, Milton kept a reading notebook or a Commonplace Book, which was a structured repository for reading notes. From this manuscript, in conjunction with references in his written work, we are able to piece together a detailed record of what Milton read and what he took away from his reading. This manuscript is presently housed in the British Library. less
MILTON'S LIBRARY: Milton's personal letters show that his access to books came in part from... more
MILTON'S LIBRARY: Milton's personal letters show that his access to books came in part from libraries and borrowed books, but also from his own substantial collection, which he had amassed from books acquired at shops in London and Europe. Regrettably, unlike contemporaries whose libraries are still intact or whose collections can be reconstructed with shelf lists or signed books, few of Milton's actual books can be identified with certainty: there are extant only seven books from Milton's own library. This is probably because he stopped signing books quite early in his career. Yet, like many early modern writers and readers, Milton kept a reading notebook or a Commonplace Book, which was a structured repository for reading notes. From this manuscript, in conjunction with references in his written work, we are able to piece together a detailed record of what Milton read and what he took away from his reading. This manuscript is presently housed in the British Library. less
MILTON'S LIBRARY: Milton's personal letters show that his access to books came in part from... more
MILTON'S LIBRARY: Milton's personal letters show that his access to books came in part from libraries and borrowed books, but also from his own substantial collection, which he had amassed from books acquired at shops in London and Europe. Regrettably, unlike contemporaries whose libraries are still intact or whose collections can be reconstructed with shelf lists or signed books, few of Milton's actual books can be identified with certainty: there are extant only seven books from Milton's own library. This is probably because he stopped signing books quite early in his career. Yet, like many early modern writers and readers, Milton kept a reading notebook or a Commonplace Book, which was a structured repository for reading notes. From this manuscript, in conjunction with references in his written work, we are able to piece together a detailed record of what Milton read and what he took away from his reading. This manuscript is presently housed in the British Library. less
MILTON'S LIBRARY: Milton's personal letters show that his access to books came in part from... more
MILTON'S LIBRARY: Milton's personal letters show that his access to books came in part from libraries and borrowed books, but also from his own substantial collection, which he had amassed from books acquired at shops in London and Europe. Regrettably, unlike contemporaries whose libraries are still intact or whose collections can be reconstructed with shelf lists or signed books, few of Milton's actual books can be identified with certainty: there are extant only seven books from Milton's own library. This is probably because he stopped signing books quite early in his career. Yet, like many early modern writers and readers, Milton kept a reading notebook or a Commonplace Book, which was a structured repository for reading notes. From this manuscript, in conjunction with references in his written work, we are able to piece together a detailed record of what Milton read and what he took away from his reading. This manuscript is presently housed in the British Library. less
MILTON'S EARLY POETRY: Like most early modern poets, Milton circulated his poems in manuscript and... more
MILTON'S EARLY POETRY: Like most early modern poets, Milton circulated his poems in manuscript and eventually collected them -- or, at least, those fit to print -- into a printed volume. Many poets, such as John Donne, never lived to see the majority of their poems in print, in part because manuscript circulation still provided an extremely effective form of publication. More comfortable with the print marketplace than some contemporaries, Milton put out two volumes of poetry during his lifetime: the first, printed at the age of thirty-seven during the civil wars in 1645, and the second in 1673, the year before he died. A few of his short poems also appeared in print separately, such as the poem to Shakespeare, the first of this poems to appear in print in 1632. Some of his poetry, such as the sonnets to Fairfax and Cromwell, were not fit to print in his lifetime. less
MILTON'S EARLY POETRY: Like most early modern poets, Milton circulated his poems in manuscript and... more
MILTON'S EARLY POETRY: Like most early modern poets, Milton circulated his poems in manuscript and eventually collected them –- or, at least, those fit to print –- into a printed volume. Many poets, such as John Donne, never lived to see the majority of their poems in print, in part because manuscript circulation still provided an extremely effective form of publication. More comfortable with the print marketplace than some contemporaries, Milton put out two volumes of poetry during his lifetime: the first, printed at the age of thirty-seven during the civil wars in 1645, and the second in 1673, the year before he died. A few of his short poems also appeared in print separately, such as the poem to Shakespeare, the first of this poems to appear in print in 1632. Some of his poetry, such as the sonnets to Fairfax and Cromwell, were not fit to print in his lifetime. less
THE SCRIBAL PUBLICATION OF VERSE: The scribal “publication” of these poems was probably as... more
THE SCRIBAL PUBLICATION OF VERSE: The scribal “publication” of these poems was probably as effective as print, since even now over 4,000 extant manuscript texts attest to an extraordinary rate of production. Survival rates vary in puzzling ways: in spite of the value they must have had even then, the survival rate of poems in Donne’s own hand is extraordinarily low: only one survives, and it was discovered n 1970. Scribal circulation was the central mode of publication for poets like Donne, Thomas Traherne, Andrew Marvell, or Katherine Phillips, most of whose poetry was not printed until after their deaths. less
THE SCRIBAL PUBLICATION OF VERSE: The scribal “publication” of these poems was probably as... more
THE SCRIBAL PUBLICATION OF VERSE: The scribal “publication” of these poems was probably as effective as print, since even now over 4,000 extant manuscript texts attest to an extraordinary rate of production. Survival rates vary in puzzling ways: in spite of the value they must have had even then, the survival rate of poems in Donne’s own hand is extraordinarily low: only one survives, and it was discovered n 1970. Scribal circulation was the central mode of publication for poets like Donne, Thomas Traherne, Andrew Marvell, or Katherine Phillips, most of whose poetry was not printed until after their deaths. less
THE SCRIBAL PUBLICATION OF VERSE: The scribal “publication” of these poems was probably as... more
THE SCRIBAL PUBLICATION OF VERSE: The scribal “publication” of these poems was probably as effective as print, since even now over 4,000 extant manuscript texts attest to an extraordinary rate of production. Survival rates vary in puzzling ways: in spite of the value they must have had even then, the survival rate of poems in Donne’s own hand is extraordinarily low: only one survives, and it was discovered n 1970. Scribal circulation was the central mode of publication for poets like Donne, Thomas Traherne, Andrew Marvell, or Katherine Phillips, most of whose poetry was not printed until after their deaths. less
THE SCRIBAL PUBLICATION OF VERSE: The scribal “publication” of these poems was probably as... more
THE SCRIBAL PUBLICATION OF VERSE: The scribal “publication” of these poems was probably as effective as print, since even now over 4,000 extant manuscript texts attest to an extraordinary rate of production. Survival rates vary in puzzling ways: in spite of the value they must have had even then, the survival rate of poems in Donne’s own hand is extraordinarily low: only one survives, and it was discovered n 1970. Scribal circulation was the central mode of publication for poets like Donne, Thomas Traherne, Andrew Marvell, or Katherine Phillips, most of whose poetry was not printed until after their deaths. less
PAMPHLET WARS: Short, cheap, vernacular, and costing no more than a few pennies, the printed... more
PAMPHLET WARS: Short, cheap, vernacular, and costing no more than a few pennies, the printed pamphlet often proved the most effective form for quick interventions in controversy. With the breakdown of censorship, the production of books and especially pamphlets exploded. The number of titles printed in England in 1641 was 2042, more than three times the number produced in 1639. More books and pamphlets were printed in 1642, during the English Civil War, than in the five-year period prior to 1639. In 1640-1, a bookseller and friend of Milton's named George Thomason began collecting books to document history, and for two decades he amassed 22,000 pamphlets, books, broadsides, and books of poetry. He dated each title with the day of its appearance, providing an invaluable (though not always precise) record of the day-to-day history of print. The entire collection now rests in the British Library, and is accessible online. Some of the titles preserved by Thomason exist in no other collection -- all other records of their existence have been lost. Pamphlets were the dominant mode of publication in the mid-seventeenth century, and most of Milton's own publications are pamphlets. Even though Milton published many pamphlets, and referred to many pamphlets in his printed work, he almost never refers to contemporary pamphlets in his Commonplace Book. Pamphlets have not always been valued; the Oxford librarian Thomas Bodley spoke famously against preserving pamphlets in libraries and university collections such as his own, opining that they were "not worth the custody in such a Library." They were short -- sometimes very short -- quarto books, which meant that the large sheet that was printed was folded twice (to make four parts) -- a folio, such as Shakespeare's Folio featured here, would be folded just once. less
PAMPHLET WARS: Short, cheap, vernacular, and costing no more than a few pennies, the printed... more
PAMPHLET WARS: Short, cheap, vernacular, and costing no more than a few pennies, the printed pamphlet often proved the most effective form for quick interventions in controversy. With the breakdown of censorship, the production of books and especially pamphlets exploded. The number of titles printed in England in 1641 was 2042, more than three times the number produced in 1639. More books and pamphlets were printed in 1642, during the English Civil War, than in the five-year period prior to 1639. In 1640-1, a bookseller and friend of Milton's named George Thomason began collecting books to document history, and for two decades he amassed 22,000 pamphlets, books, broadsides, and books of poetry. He dated each title with the day of its appearance, providing an invaluable (though not always precise) record of the day-to-day history of print. The entire collection now rests in the British Library, and is accessible online. Some of the titles preserved by Thomason exist in no other collection -- all other records of their existence have been lost. Pamphlets were the dominant mode of publication in the mid-seventeenth century, and most of Milton's own publications are pamphlets. Even though Milton published many pamphlets, and referred to many pamphlets in his printed work, he almost never refers to contemporary pamphlets in his Commonplace Book. Pamphlets have not always been valued; the Oxford librarian Thomas Bodley spoke famously against preserving pamphlets in libraries and university collections such as his own, opining that they were "not worth the custody in such a Library." They were short - sometimes very short -- quarto books, which meant that the large sheet that was printed was folded twice (to make four parts) -- a folio, such as Shakespeare's Folio featured here, would be folded just once. less
PAMPHLET WARS: Short, cheap, vernacular, and costing no more than a few pennies, the printed... more
PAMPHLET WARS: Short, cheap, vernacular, and costing no more than a few pennies, the printed pamphlet often proved the most effective form for quick interventions in controversy. With the breakdown of censorship, the production of books and especially pamphlets exploded. The number of titles printed in England in 1641 was 2042, more than three times the number produced in 1639. More books and pamphlets were printed in 1642, during the English Civil War, than in the five-year period prior to 1639. In 1640-1, a bookseller and friend of Milton's named George Thomason began collecting books to document history, and for two decades he amassed 22,000 pamphlets, books, broadsides, and books of poetry. He dated each title with the day of its appearance, providing an invaluable (though not always precise) record of the day-to-day history of print. The entire collection now rests in the British Library, and is accessible online. Some of the titles preserved by Thomason exist in no other collection -- all other records of their existence have been lost. Pamphlets were the dominant mode of publication in the mid-seventeenth century, and most of Milton's own publications are pamphlets. Even though Milton published many pamphlets, and referred to many pamphlets in his printed work, he almost never refers to contemporary pamphlets in his Commonplace Book. Pamphlets have not always been valued; the Oxford librarian Thomas Bodley spoke famously against preserving pamphlets in libraries and university collections such as his own, opining that they were "not worth the custody in such a Library." They were short - sometimes very short -- quarto books, which meant that the large sheet that was printed was folded twice (to make four parts) -- a folio, such as Shakespeare's Folio featured here, would be folded just once. less
PAMPHLET WARS: Short, cheap, vernacular, and costing no more than a few pennies, the printed... more
PAMPHLET WARS: Short, cheap, vernacular, and costing no more than a few pennies, the printed pamphlet often proved the most effective form for quick interventions in controversy. With the breakdown of censorship, the production of books and especially pamphlets exploded. The number of titles printed in England in 1641 was 2042, more than three times the number produced in 1639. More books and pamphlets were printed in 1642, during the English Civil War, than in the five-year period prior to 1639. In 1640-1, a bookseller and friend of Milton's named George Thomason began collecting books to document history, and for two decades he amassed 22,000 pamphlets, books, broadsides, and books of poetry. He dated each title with the day of its appearance, providing an invaluable (though not always precise) record of the day-to-day history of print. The entire collection now rests in the British Library, and is accessible online. Some of the titles preserved by Thomason exist in no other collection -- all other records of their existence have been lost. Pamphlets were the dominant mode of publication in the mid-seventeenth century, and most of Milton's own publications are pamphlets. Even though Milton published many pamphlets, and referred to many pamphlets in his printed work, he almost never refers to contemporary pamphlets in his Commonplace Book. Pamphlets have not always been valued; the Oxford librarian Thomas Bodley spoke famously against preserving pamphlets in libraries and university collections such as his own, opining that they were "not worth the custody in such a Library." They were short - sometimes very short -- quarto books, which meant that the large sheet that was printed was folded twice (to make four parts) -- a folio, such as Shakespeare's Folio featured here, would be folded just once. less
PAMPHLET WARS: Short, cheap, vernacular, and costing no more than a few pennies, the printed... more
PAMPHLET WARS: Short, cheap, vernacular, and costing no more than a few pennies, the printed pamphlet often proved the most effective form for quick interventions in controversy. With the breakdown of censorship, the production of books and especially pamphlets exploded. The number of titles printed in England in 1641 was 2042, more than three times the number produced in 1639. More books and pamphlets were printed in 1642, during the English Civil War, than in the five-year period prior to 1639. In 1640-1, a bookseller and friend of Milton's named George Thomason began collecting books to document history, and for two decades he amassed 22,000 pamphlets, books, broadsides, and books of poetry. He dated each title with the day of its appearance, providing an invaluable (though not always precise) record of the day-to-day history of print. The entire collection now rests in the British Library, and is accessible online. Some of the titles preserved by Thomason exist in no other collection -- all other records of their existence have been lost. Pamphlets were the dominant mode of publication in the mid-seventeenth century, and most of Milton's own publications are pamphlets. Even though Milton published many pamphlets, and referred to many pamphlets in his printed work, he almost never refers to contemporary pamphlets in his Commonplace Book. Pamphlets have not always been valued; the Oxford librarian Thomas Bodley spoke famously against preserving pamphlets in libraries and university collections such as his own, opining that they were "not worth the custody in such a Library." They were short - sometimes very short -- quarto books, which meant that the large sheet that was printed was folded twice (to make four parts) -- a folio, such as Shakespeare's Folio featured here, would be folded just once. less
THE DIVORCE TRACTS: During the civil war period Milton wrote over twenty pamphlets in defense of... more
THE DIVORCE TRACTS: During the civil war period Milton wrote over twenty pamphlets in defense of "three varieties of liberty," as he put it in 1654: "ecclesiastical liberty, domestic or personal liberty, and civil liberty." The five pamphlets on "domestic liberty" -- his so-called divorce tracts -- boldly argued for the liberty to choose a spouse and to choose again if that choice proved in error. His views were called "licentious, new and dangerous," and he was the subject of a Parliamentary inquiry. Contemporaries wanted the books suppressed, which may have contributed to his commitment to the freedom of the press. less
THE DIVORCE TRACTS: During the civil war period Milton wrote over twenty pamphlets in defense of... more
THE DIVORCE TRACTS: During the civil war period Milton wrote over twenty pamphlets in defense of "three varieties of liberty," as he put it in 1654: "ecclesiastical liberty, domestic or personal liberty, and civil liberty." The five pamphlets on "domestic liberty" -- his so-called divorce tracts -- boldly argued for the liberty to choose a spouse and to choose again if that choice proved in error. His views were called "licentious, new and dangerous," and he was the subject of a Parliamentary inquiry. Contemporaries wanted the books suppressed, which may have contributed to his commitment to the freedom of the press. less
THE DIVORCE TRACTS: During the civil war period Milton wrote over twenty pamphlets in defense of... more
THE DIVORCE TRACTS: During the civil war period Milton wrote over twenty pamphlets in defense of "three varieties of liberty," as he put it in 1654: "ecclesiastical liberty, domestic or personal liberty, and civil liberty." The five pamphlets on "domestic liberty" -- his so-called divorce tracts -- boldly argued for the liberty to choose a spouse and to choose again if that choice proved in error. His views were called "licentious, new and dangerous," and he was the subject of a Parliamentary inquiry. Contemporaries wanted the books suppressed, which may have contributed to his commitment to the freedom of the press. less
THE DIVORCE TRACTS: During the civil war period Milton wrote over twenty pamphlets in defense of... more
THE DIVORCE TRACTS: During the civil war period Milton wrote over twenty pamphlets in defense of "three varieties of liberty," as he put it in 1654: "ecclesiastical liberty, domestic or personal liberty, and civil liberty." The five pamphlets on "domestic liberty" -- his so-called divorce tracts -- boldly argued for the liberty to choose a spouse and to choose again if that choice proved in error. His views were called "licentious, new and dangerous," and he was the subject of a Parliamentary inquiry. Contemporaries wanted the books suppressed, which may have contributed to his commitment to the freedom of the press. less
REVOLUTION AND THE FREEDOM OF PRESS: Early in the parliamentary wars against King Charles I, major... more
REVOLUTION AND THE FREEDOM OF PRESS: Early in the parliamentary wars against King Charles I, major factions began to emerge among member of the opposition. Parliament was increasingly dominated by extremists who advocated intolerance – sometimes even extreme intolerance – against dissenting opinion and religious beliefs. These strict Presbyterian puritans opposed many of the positions that Milton either held already or would come to hold in the course of the 1640s – among these the freedom to divorce, theological free will, and anti-trinitarianism. In 1643, Parliament passed an “Ordinance for the Regulating of Printing,” which Milton interpreted in Areopagitica as designed to suppress belief. In 1648 the extremism had taken an even more severe form, when Parliament passed an “Ordinance for the Punishing of Blasphemies and Heresies,” and it became illegal to print certain “heresies” – such as those that Milton upheld. less
REVOLUTION AND THE FREEDOM OF THE PRESS: Early in the parliamentary wars against King Charles I,... more
REVOLUTION AND THE FREEDOM OF THE PRESS: Early in the parliamentary wars against King Charles I, major factions began to emerge among member of the opposition. Parliament was increasingly dominated by extremists who advocated intolerance – sometimes even extreme intolerance – against dissenting opinion and religious beliefs. These strict Presbyterian puritans opposed many of the positions that Milton either held already or would come to hold in the course of the 1640s – among these the freedom to divorce, theological free will, and anti-trinitarianism. In 1643, Parliament passed an “Ordinance for the Regulating of Printing,” which Milton interpreted in Areopagitica as designed to suppress belief. In 1648 the extremism had taken an even more severe form, when Parliament passed an “Ordinance for the Punishing of Blasphemies and Heresies,” and it became illegal to print certain “heresies” – such as those that Milton upheld. less
THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES I: Milton states in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in words that... more
THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES I: Milton states in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in words that sound almost Jeffersonian: “all men naturally were born free,” “born to command and not to obey.” These are part of a strenuous and profound defense of popular sovereignty, the right of a private person to overthrow both parliament (or magistrate) and king. After a protracted stalemate, English political history experienced a sudden succession of upheavals: the forceful exclusion of the army of the majority of Parliament, called “Pride’s Purge” of Parliament in December 6, 1648; the decision by the new “Rump” Parliament to put the king on trial on January 6; and the trial and execution of King Charles I on January 30, 1649. During the trial, January 26-30, Milton began an extraordinary defense of the overthrow of both parliament and king, The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, a work published shortly after the king’s death. Milton was then hired by the new government to be their spokesperson and counter-propagandist, and also to be a secretary of foreign languages, which meant communicating in Latin and in other languages to foreign diplomats and politicians. less
THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES I: Milton states in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in words that... more
THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES I: Milton states in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in words that sound almost Jeffersonian: “all men naturally were born free,” “born to command and not to obey.” These are part of a strenuous and profound defense of popular sovereignty, the right of a private person to overthrow both parliament (or magistrate) and king. After a protracted stalemate, English political history experienced a sudden succession of upheavals: the forceful exclusion of the army of the majority of Parliament, called “Pride’s Purge” of Parliament in December 6, 1648; the decision by the new “Rump” Parliament to put the king on trial on January 6; and the trial and execution of King Charles I on January 30, 1649. During the trial, January 26-30, Milton began an extraordinary defense of the overthrow of both parliament and king, The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, a work published shortly after the king’s death. Milton was then hired by the new government to be their spokesperson and counter-propagandist, and also to be a secretary of foreign languages, which meant communicating in Latin and in other languages to foreign diplomats and politicians. less
THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES I: Milton states in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in words that... more
THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES I: Milton states in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in words that sound almost Jeffersonian: “all men naturally were born free,” “born to command and not to obey.” These are part of a strenuous and profound defense of popular sovereignty, the right of a private person to overthrow both parliament (or magistrate) and king. After a protracted stalemate, English political history experienced a sudden succession of upheavals: the forceful exclusion of the army of the majority of Parliament, called “Pride’s Purge” of Parliament in December 6, 1648; the decision by the new “Rump” Parliament to put the king on trial on January 6; and the trial and execution of King Charles I on January 30, 1649. During the trial, January 26-30, Milton began an extraordinary defense of the overthrow of both parliament and king, The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, a work published shortly after the king’s death. Milton was then hired by the new government to be their spokesperson and counter-propagandist, and also to be a secretary of foreign languages, which meant communicating in Latin and in other languages to foreign diplomats and politicians. less
THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES I: Milton states in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in words that... more
THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES I: Milton states in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in words that sound almost Jeffersonian: “all men naturally were born free,” “born to command and not to obey.” These are part of a strenuous and profound defense of popular sovereignty, the right of a private person to overthrow both parliament (or magistrate) and king. After a protracted stalemate, English political history experienced a sudden succession of upheavals: the forceful exclusion of the army of the majority of Parliament, called “Pride’s Purge” of Parliament in December 6, 1648; the decision by the new “Rump” Parliament to put the king on trial on January 6; and the trial and execution of King Charles I on January 30, 1649. During the trial, January 26-30, Milton began an extraordinary defense of the overthrow of both parliament and king, The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, a work published shortly after the king’s death. Milton was then hired by the new government to be their spokesperson and counter-propagandist, and also to be a secretary of foreign languages, which meant communicating in Latin and in other languages to foreign diplomats and politicians. less
THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES I: Milton states in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in words that... more
THE EXECUTION OF CHARLES I: Milton states in The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, in words that sound almost Jeffersonian: “all men naturally were born free,” “born to command and not to obey.” These are part of a strenuous and profound defense of popular sovereignty, the right of a private person to overthrow both parliament (or magistrate) and king. After a protracted stalemate, English political history experienced a sudden succession of upheavals: the forceful exclusion of the army of the majority of Parliament, called “Pride’s Purge” of Parliament in December 6, 1648; the decision by the new “Rump” Parliament to put the king on trial on January 6; and the trial and execution of King Charles I on January 30, 1649. During the trial, January 26-30, Milton began an extraordinary defense of the overthrow of both parliament and king, The Tenure of Kings and Magistrates, a work published shortly after the king’s death. Milton was then hired by the new government to be their spokesperson and counter-propagandist, and also to be a secretary of foreign languages, which meant communicating in Latin and in other languages to foreign diplomats and politicians. less
MILTON AND SONS, A FAMILY BUSINESS: In 1652, after a couple of years of waning eyesight, Milton went... more
MILTON AND SONS, A FAMILY BUSINESS: In 1652, after a couple of years of waning eyesight, Milton went completely blind. From about 1650 onward, Milton began to rely extensively on a team of researchers, scribes, and amanuenses. Rutgers English Professor Ann Baynes Coiro has used the term “Milton and sons” to describe Milton’s close relationship with two of these young men, Edward and John Phillips, nephews of Milton who attended Milton’s small academy in the early 1640s, and who were adopted into Milton’s household. These young men went on to have publishing careers of their own, but it still remains unclear how much they helped Milton in researching and even co-writing some of the work of the period, particularly Milton’s second Latin defense of the English people, shown here, and a defense of himself. less
MILTON AND SONS, A FAMILY BUSINESS: In 1652, after a couple of years of waning eyesight, Milton went... more
MILTON AND SONS, A FAMILY BUSINESS: In 1652, after a couple of years of waning eyesight, Milton went completely blind. From about 1650 onward, Milton began to rely extensively on a team of researchers, scribes, and amanuenses. Rutgers English Professor Ann Baynes Coiro has used the term “Milton and sons” to describe Milton’s close relationship with two of these young men, Edward and John Phillips, nephews of Milton who attended Milton’s small academy in the early 1640s, and who were adopted into Milton’s household. These young men went on to have publishing careers of their own, but it still remains unclear how much they helped Milton in researching and even co-writing some of the work of the period, particularly Milton’s second Latin defense of the English people, shown here, and a defense of himself. less
MILTON AND SONS, A FAMILY BUSINESS: In 1652, after a couple of years of waning eyesight, Milton went... more
MILTON AND SONS, A FAMILY BUSINESS: In 1652, after a couple of years of waning eyesight, Milton went completely blind. From about 1650 onward, Milton began to rely extensively on a team of researchers, scribes, and amanuenses. Rutgers English Professor Ann Baynes Coiro has used the term “Milton and sons” to describe Milton’s close relationship with two of these young men, Edward and John Phillips, nephews of Milton who attended Milton’s small academy in the early 1640s, and who were adopted into Milton’s household. These young men went on to have publishing careers of their own, but it still remains unclear how much they helped Milton in researching and even co-writing some of the work of the period, particularly Milton’s second Latin defense of the English people, shown here, and a defense of himself. less
MILTON AND SONS, A FAMILY BUSINESS: In 1652, after a couple of years of waning eyesight, Milton went... more
MILTON AND SONS, A FAMILY BUSINESS: In 1652, after a couple of years of waning eyesight, Milton went completely blind. From about 1650 onward, Milton began to rely extensively on a team of researchers, scribes, and amanuenses. Rutgers English Professor Ann Baynes Coiro has used the term “Milton and sons” to describe Milton’s close relationship with two of these young men, Edward and John Phillips, nephews of Milton who attended Milton’s small academy in the early 1640s, and who were adopted into Milton’s household. These young men went on to have publishing careers of their own, but it still remains unclear how much they helped Milton in researching and even co-writing some of the work of the period, particularly Milton’s second Latin defense of the English people, shown here, and a defense of himself. less
THE RESTORATION -- CENSORSHIP AND PARADISE LOST: Paradise Lost (1667) was Milton’s first venture... more
THE RESTORATION -- CENSORSHIP AND PARADISE LOST: Paradise Lost (1667) was Milton’s first venture into print after the Royal Proclamation, his arrest, and the public burning of his works in 1660. In order to reenter the public world of print, Milton returned to a family business that had published several political tracts – including Eikonoklastes, one of the banned books. Still, as one early biographer relates, censorship threatened to suppress publication: “we had like to be eternally depriv’d of this Treasure by the Ignorance or Malace of the Licenser, who, among other frivolous Exceptions, would needs suppress the whole Poem for imaginary Treason in the following lines: As when the Sun new ris’n / Looks through the Horizontal misty Air / Shorn of his Beams, or from behind the Moon / In dim Eclips disastrous twilight sheds / On half the Nations, and with fear of change / Perplexes Monarchs.” (Paradise Lost, I, 594-9) We do not know what other “Exceptions” were taken or allowed, but Milton’s manuscripts continued to be challenged by licenser. less
THE RESTORATION -- CENSORSHIP AND PARADISE LOST: Paradise Lost (1667) was Milton’s first venture... more
THE RESTORATION -- CENSORSHIP AND PARADISE LOST: Paradise Lost (1667) was Milton’s first venture into print after the Royal Proclamation, his arrest, and the public burning of his works in 1660. In order to reenter the public world of print, Milton returned to a family business that had published several political tracts – including Eikonoklastes, one of the banned books. Still, as one early biographer relates, censorship threatened to suppress publication: “we had like to be eternally depriv’d of this Treasure by the Ignorance or Malace of the Licenser, who, among other frivolous Exceptions, would needs suppress the whole Poem for imaginary Treason in the following lines: As when the Sun new ris’n / Looks through the Horizontal misty Air / Shorn of his Beams, or from behind the Moon / In dim Eclips disastrous twilight sheds / On half the Nations, and with fear of change / Perplexes Monarchs.” (Paradise Lost, I, 594-9) We do not know what other “Exceptions” were taken or allowed, but Milton’s manuscripts continued to be challenged by licenser. less
THE RESTORATION -- CENSORSHIP AND PARADISE LOST: Paradise Lost (1667) was Milton’s first venture... more
THE RESTORATION -- CENSORSHIP AND PARADISE LOST: Paradise Lost (1667) was Milton’s first venture into print after the Royal Proclamation, his arrest, and the public burning of his works in 1660. In order to reenter the public world of print, Milton returned to a family business that had published several political tracts – including Eikonoklastes, one of the banned books. Still, as one early biographer relates, censorship threatened to suppress publication: “we had like to be eternally depriv’d of this Treasure by the Ignorance or Malace of the Licenser, who, among other frivolous Exceptions, would needs suppress the whole Poem for imaginary Treason in the following lines: As when the Sun new ris’n / Looks through the Horizontal misty Air / Shorn of his Beams, or from behind the Moon / In dim Eclips disastrous twilight sheds / On half the Nations, and with fear of change / Perplexes Monarchs.” (Paradise Lost, I, 594-9) We do not know what other “Exceptions” were taken or allowed, but Milton’s manuscripts continued to be challenged by licenser. less
THE RESTORATION -- CENSORSHIP AND PARADISE LOST: Paradise Lost (1667) was Milton’s first venture... more
THE RESTORATION -- CENSORSHIP AND PARADISE LOST: Paradise Lost (1667) was Milton’s first venture into print after the Royal Proclamation, his arrest, and the public burning of his works in 1660. In order to reenter the public world of print, Milton returned to a family business that had published several political tracts – including Eikonoklastes, one of the banned books. Still, as one early biographer relates, censorship threatened to suppress publication: “we had like to be eternally depriv’d of this Treasure by the Ignorance or Malace of the Licenser, who, among other frivolous Exceptions, would needs suppress the whole Poem for imaginary Treason in the following lines: As when the Sun new ris’n / Looks through the Horizontal misty Air / Shorn of his Beams, or from behind the Moon / In dim Eclips disastrous twilight sheds / On half the Nations, and with fear of change / Perplexes Monarchs.” (Paradise Lost, I, 594-9) We do not know what other “Exceptions” were taken or allowed, but Milton’s manuscripts continued to be challenged by licenser. less
THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE: "My Best and Richest Possession"
THE CHRISTIAN DOCTRINE: "My Best and Richest Possession" less
CENSORSHIP AND MILTON'S LATE WORK: After the appearance of Paradise Lost in 1667, a frenzy of... more
CENSORSHIP AND MILTON'S LATE WORK: After the appearance of Paradise Lost in 1667, a frenzy of publication ensued until Milton’s death in 1674. Among the many works Milton published are: The History of Britain, which was started in the late 1640s; a sequel to Paradise Lost (Paradise Regained); to which was bound a biblical drama, Samson Agonistes; his collected poems, and several other pamphlets and books. His published work continued to attract the eye of the censor. less
CENSORSHIP AND MILTON'S LATE WORK: After the appearance of Paradise Lost in 1667, a frenzy of... more
CENSORSHIP AND MILTON'S LATE WORK: After the appearance of Paradise Lost in 1667, a frenzy of publication ensued until Milton’s death in 1674. Among the many works Milton published are: The History of Britain, which was started in the late 1640s; a sequel to Paradise Lost (Paradise Regained); to which was bound a biblical drama, Samson Agonistes; his collected poems, and several other pamphlets and books. His published work continued to attract the eye of the censor. less
CENSORSHIP AND MILTON'S LATE WORK: After the appearance of Paradise Lost in 1667, a frenzy of... more
CENSORSHIP AND MILTON'S LATE WORK: After the appearance of Paradise Lost in 1667, a frenzy of publication ensued until Milton’s death in 1674. Among the many works Milton published are: The History of Britain, which was started in the late 1640s; a sequel to Paradise Lost (Paradise Regained); to which was bound a biblical drama, Samson Agonistes; his collected poems, and several other pamphlets and books. His published work continued to attract the eye of the censor. less
CENSORSHIP AND MILTON'S LATE WORK: After the appearance of Paradise Lost in 1667, a frenzy of... more
CENSORSHIP AND MILTON'S LATE WORK: After the appearance of Paradise Lost in 1667, a frenzy of publication ensued until Milton’s death in 1674. Among the many works Milton published are: The History of Britain, which was started in the late 1640s; a sequel to Paradise Lost (Paradise Regained); to which was bound a biblical drama, Samson Agonistes; his collected poems, and several other pamphlets and books. His published work continued to attract the eye of the censor. less
J. MILTON FRENCH, A TRIBUTE: Rutgers University Libraries’ Milton collection originated in the... more
J. MILTON FRENCH, A TRIBUTE: Rutgers University Libraries’ Milton collection originated in the foresight of Joseph Milton French (1895-1962), internationally acclaimed Milton scholar and professor of English at Rutgers from 1940 to 1960. Soon after his arrival at Rutgers, French advised university librarian George A. Osborn in the acquisition of the 1649 Eikonoklastes, the divorce tracts, and several other works on display in this exhibition. J. Milton French’s five-volume The Life Records of John Milton was published by the Rutgers University Press between 1949 and 1958. He served on the editorial board of Yale University Press’ The Complete Prose Works of John Milton and was named Honored Scholar of the Year by the Milton Society of America in 1956. less
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The Holy Bible: Conteyning the Old Testament, and the New: newly translated out of the originall tongues (London: By Robert Barker, Printer to the Kings most Excellent Maiestie, anno 1611)One of the seven extant books from Milton's library is the King James Bible of 1611, now in the British Library (part of the manuscript collection, MS Additional 32310). This was Milton's "family Bible," in which records of family history were recorded in the back. The "authorized" King James Version of the Bible was designed to replace the so-called Geneva Bible, the most popular Bible in England, whose notes nonetheless had a Puritan bias that the King thought "very partiall, untrue, seditious, and savouring too much, of dangerous, and traitorous conceits." Milton's copy contains many manuscript annotations and corrections.
Sir Thomas Smith, The Common-wealth of England (London: Printed by William Stansby for John Smethwicke, 1621)Thomas Smith (1513-1577) was an Elizabethan political theorist who wrote in strong support of Parliamentary sovereignty. "The most high and absolute power of the Realme of England consisteth in the Parliament," he wrote. "The Parliament abrogateth old Lawes, maketh new, giveth order for things past, and for things hereafter to be followed, changeth rights and possessions of private men,...establisheth formes of Religion, [and] giveth forme of succession to the Crown." The war between the crown and the parliament revolved largely around questions of parliamentary versus royal sovereignty. Milton refers to this influential book several times in his reading notes and in his printed polemic.
Pindar, Pindari Olympia, Pythia, Nemea, Isthmia (Saumur, 1620)A great deal of Milton's reading was not in English, but in Latin, Greek, Italian, and other languages. Books in languages other than English were printed in London, but many were European imports. The proportion of foreign imprints in Milton's reading notes is 73 percent. Foreign books could be obtained in London bookshops, and Milton also shipped books home from Europe, and had friends send him books from abroad. In comparison with other personal libraries for which we have shelf-lists, the surprisingly low percentage of British imprints in Milton's notes is quite normal, and it may well represent the proportions in Milton's own library. Milton cites Pindar in his writing, probably drawing from this edition. A copy of this same imprint long thought to have been Milton's, with annotations included in the Columbia edition of Milton's works, is housed at Harvard University. Whether the copy now at Harvard actually belonged to Milton is now debated.
Edmund Spenser, The Faerie Queen; The Shepherds Calendar: Together with the Other Works of England's Arch-poët (London: Printed by H.L. for Mathew Lownes, 1617)In addition to Shakespeare, Milton was profoundly influenced by the English epic poet Edmund Spenser. Frequently cited in Milton's prose, Milton refers to Spenser as "our Poet Spenser" -- a figure of unquestionable national importance. Milton had long planned to write a national epic like that of Spenser. As he wrote in 1639 he was "resolved to tell the story of the Trojan ships" that came to the British Isles, a national epic in the Virgilian mode that reaffirmed the foundation myth of a nation. When he finally turned to write Paradise Lost, however, the geography was biblical rather than national; and instead of writing about founding a place, he wrote about leaving a place.
[Milton,] "An Epitaph on the Admirable Dramatic Poet, William Shakespeare," in Mr. William Shakespeares Comedies, Histories, and Tragedies (1664)Milton's first published poem is this anonymous "epitaph" placed prominently in the second edition of Shakespeare's collected plays. No one knows how John Milton, a then unknown poet in his early 20s, was selected to contribute to this majestic Folio printing of England's great dramatist, though it has recently become clear that Milton's family had connections to the King's Men, Shakespeare's troupe of players.
J.M., "To the Memorie of M. W. Shakespeare," in Shakespeare's First and Second Folio; shown here from the 1664 Folio.This poem, by a "J.M.," appeared in the first Folio of Shakespeare's works in 1623, and it is thought by some to have been by Milton's father, John Milton Senior, who was a trustee of Blackfriars Theatre, which was used by Shakespeare's company.
Donne, Elegy 18: "Love's Progress," and 6-line epigramLike many of the 4000 plus poems that have survived by Donne, this copy shows no indication of authorship. One of the dangers of scribal publication, of course, is that attributions can easily shift or disappear, though -- as is clear in the many anonymous print publications in this exhibit -- possessive authorship was still a developing concept.
"Oceana et Brittania," probably written in 1681. The manuscript copy in an unknown hand of a poem incorrectly ascribed to Andrew Marvell; 12 ppAnother anonymous poem, long thought to be Marvell's. Because the writings of many poets were not collected until after their deaths, attribution of early modern poetry is still a source of dispute.
Sham ProphecyThe Sham Prophecy, anonymous Restoration Satire Once though to be by John Wilmot, the Second Earl of Rochester, this "Sham Prophecy" exists in different versions and formats; it was even reportedly inscribed in the walls of an abbey. Dated "23 May 1297" in at least one version, the prophecy tells of a time in 1678 when the man call'd Oates shall bee in danger to bee devoured." Titus Oates was the infamous architect of the fictitious conspiracy known as the "Popish Plot" that ignited anti-Catholic paranoia in 1678-1681.
"Cromwell's Ghost" [sonnet] ("Rouze upp my Sons: redeeme your lost Renown.")A radical republican sonnet, perhaps written in 1659 or 1660, which bids readers to remember 1641 -- probably as the restoration of the monarch was nearly at hand. Scribal publication was a major vehicle for subversive views, since there were no authorities to license publication, and the source of publication is virtually untraceable. Milton's on political sonnets to Cromwell and Fairfax (among others) remained in manuscript until after his death.
Joseph Hall, An Humble Remonstrance to the High Court of Parliament, By a Dutifull Sonne of the Church (London, 1640)The pamphlets represented in this section of the exhibit represent a small slice of a larger debate that helped precipitate the English Civil War. Here Bishop Joseph Hall writes a remonstrance to Parliament on behalf of the English Church. He is then attacked in print by a group of puritans; he then defends himself, is attacked again, defends himself, and Milton finally enters the fray in 1642 with his last pamphlet on the Church.
Smectymnuus, An Answer to a Book Entituled An Humble Remonstrance (London, 1641)"Smectymnuus" is an acronym created from the initials of five writers (who thus somewhat preserved their anonymity): Stephen Marshall, Edmund Calamy, Thomas Young, Matthew Newcomen, and William Spurstow. Thomas Young had been a tutor of Milton in his youth. This is their first pamphlet, appearing in March, 1641, in response to Hall's Humble Remonstrance, above. It is thought that Milton wrote "The Postscript" to the volume.
[Joseph Hall,] A Short Answer to the Tedious Vindication of Smectymnuus (London, 1641)In this pamphlet, Joseph Hall once again defends himself against "Smectymnuus."
[Joseph Hall,] A Letter Sent to an Honourable GentlemanThis anonymous pamphlet or "letter" is only four pages long, which means it was constructed with just one printed sheet. It gives no indication of author or printer.
[John Milton,] An Apology against a Pamphlet call'd A Modest Confutation of the Animadversions upon a Remonstrant against Smectymnuus (London, Printed by E.G. for John Rothwell, 1642)Milton's apology (or "defense"), also called An Apology for a Pamphlet, was the last of his anti-prelatical tracts criticizing the structure of the established Church of England. It is currently valued for the rather lengthy and revealing defense of himself that occurs in the tract, in which Milton speaks of himself as a poet.
Milton, The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce (1643)It is often thought that difficulties in his first marriage to Mary Powell precipitated his writings on divorce, and biography may have played a role. But it is clear by his notes in the Commonplace Book that he was interested in the rules around marriage and divorce much earlier. Recent research has also shown that Milton's several divorce tracts are also in dialogue with current debates, and particularly the Westminster Assembly's efforts to reform the institution of marriage. These reveal Milton to be contributing to a national discussion much more than has been previously understood.
Milton, The Doctrine & Discipline of Divorce; Restor'd to the Good of Both Sexes...To the Parliament of England, with the Assembly. The author J. M. (1644)The popular, though scandalous first edition of Milton's first divorce tract justified a significantly expanded second edition.
Milton, The Judgement of Martin Bucer, Concerning Divorce...To the Parlament of England...Publisht by Authoritie (Printed by Matthew Simmons, 1644)In his effort to present divorce as a legitimate concern (and not the view of a heretic), Milton translated part of Martin Bucer's De Regno Christi -- On the Kingdom of Christ -- a work of theocratic politics that Bucer had written in England during the reign of Edward VI. Bucer was a major Reformation figure, imported to England in the early establishment of English Protestantism. Unlike other Miltonic tracts of the period, which were not licensed for publication, Milton could publish this tract "by Authority" -- no one would bar him from publishing a translation of a venerated figure. In this tract, Milton addresses the Parliament, as usual, but he gives up on the Presbyterian Westminster Assembly.
Colasterion: A Reply to a Nameles Answer against The Doctrine and Discipline of Divorce (London, Printed in the year, 1645)In August 1644, Stationers (the publishing guild) asked Parliament to enforce laws against unlicensed pamphlets, and demanded that the Committee on Printing hunt down "the Authors, Printers, and Publishers" of such pamphlets as those "Concerning Divorce." In November 1644, an anonymous (or "nameless") "Answer" to Milton's first divorce tract appeared. This response ("Colasterion" means "punishment") is a sharp rebuke.
Manicules in the Rutgers copy of Areopagitica.Areopagitica, the most famous of Milton’s prose works, is one of the earliest defenses of the freedom to print, as it is also one of the most important defenses of the freedom of religion. Readers' marks frequently provide a revealing glimpse of the way that early modern readers approached texts.
"Wayfaring Christian," or "warfaring Christian"? A Textual Crux in Areopagitica, p. 12Many copies of Areopagitica, such as the Rutgers copy, have a manuscript correction to the printed word "wayfaring," changing it to "warfaring," and vastly changing the meaning. "Warfaring Christian" is, of course, a provocative, perhaps problematic, contradiction in terms. What kind of emendation is this? Is it a printer's mistake, emended by supervision of the author, or a revision to the original wording?
William Prynne, A Briefe Memento to the Present Unparliamentary Junto Touching their Present Intentions and Proceedings to Depose and Execute, Charles Steward, their Lawfull King (London, 1648 [January 4, 1649])William Prynne was one of the members of Parliament who was excluded by Pride's Purge. In spite of many years of fighting on Parliament's side against the king, he and other members of Parliament were unable to consider deposing Charles, which was the cause of the stalemate. These copies of William Prynne's protest against what he calls an "unparliamentary junto" are remarkably preserved in their original form. Pamphlets were stab-stitched along the side (as shown here), and rarely survive the ravages of time unless they were rebound.
Charles I, Eikon Basilike (London, 1648)Eikon Basilike ("The King's Image") was a brilliantly effective piece of posthumous royal propaganda. Supposedly written by the king (though actually by a ghost writer), the book appeared within days of the execution. In spite of many efforts to suppress it and other anti-regicide works, the book went through over thirty editions in its first year alone -- the largest single printing effort England had ever seen. Looking back over a decade later, the ghostwriter of Eikon Basilike, John Gauden, remarked that when the book "came out, just upon the King's death, good God! What shame, rage, and despite filled his murderers! What comfort his friends! How many enemies did it convert! How many hearts did it mollify and melt!...In a word, it was an army and did vanquish more than any sword could!" The Rutgers copy contains a popular foldout picture of the king in prayer.
Milton, Eikonoklastes (London, 1649)Milton's iconoclastic book, Eikonoklastes ("Image Smasher") was commissioned by the new English republican government to respond to Eikon Basilike, and it appeared within months of the king's book. When the monarchy was restored in 1660, Milton was arrested and two of his books, Eikonoklastes and Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio, were recalled, banned, and publicly burned.
Milton, Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio (1652)Milton's Latin defense of the regicide and the new English government, satirically titled the Defense of the People of England, against Claude the Anonymous, otherwise known as Salmasius, is a commissioned response to a famous French classicist who championed the monarchy. Within about a year of its publication in February 1651, it was published in thirteen editions and a couple reissues in London, Amsterdam, Utrecht, and Gouda, translated into Dutch, and rumored to have been translated into French. This copy bears a manuscript note at the end of the book indicating that Milton had been released from prison.
Milton, Pro Populo Anglicano Defensio (1651)This copy's frontispiece bears the arms of the newly created British Commonwealth, which united England, Scotland, and Wales without a monarch. This was a major work of Latin -- now the largest printed book produced by Milton, and by far the most extensively produced -- ranged from 104-389 pages in its various editions. In London, it was printed officially by William Dugard, who was thrown in jail for "printing several scandalous books against the Commonwealth," including Eikon Basilike and Salmasius's Defensio Regina, which he was apparently trying to print when, as the description in the Record Office reads, "he was cast into Newgate...and had been tried for his life by an High Court of Injustice, had not Sir James Harrington saved him from that danger, and procured his release." Shortly thereafter, Dugard managed somehow to find his way into the position of "Printer to his Hignes the Lord Protector" -- that is, Oliver Cromwell.
Joannis Miltoni Defensio Secunda Pro Populo Anglicano (London, 1654)Milton, now completely blind, wrote a second Latin defense of the English people against an anonymous opponent, which he mistook to be Alexander More. This defense is often cited for its valuable, if sometimes inaccurate, autobiographical account.
Edward Phillips, Letters of State, written by Mr. John Milton, to Most of the Sovereign Princes and Republicks of Europe. From the year 1649. Till the year 1659 (London, 1694)Long after Milton's death, Milton's nephew assembled the letters of state that Milton had worked on during his service as secretary of foreign tongues under the commonwealth government. Phillips added an account of Milton's life, one of the early biographies of Milton, and four poems that had not previously been printed with Milton's name (three that had never been printed before at all): the sonnets to Vane (which appeared anonymously), to Fairfax, to Cromwell, and to Skinner.
John Phillips, A Satyr against Hypocrites (1655)This book was written by Milton's nephew and student, who helped him as a researcher and an amanuensis after his blindness.
Edward Phillips, Theatrum Poetarum, or A Compleat Collection of the Poets (Printed for Charles Smith, at the Angel near the Inner Temple-Gate in Fleet-street, 1675)In the years after Milton's death, Phillips collected an anthology of poets and provided some "observations and reflections upon many of them, particularly those of our own nation."
Milton, The Manuscript of Paradise Lost, Book One. Edited by Helen Darbishire (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1931)Milton sold the manuscript for Paradise Lost, probably this very fair copy now at the Morgan Library in New York, for £5 to Samuel Simmons. He was promised another £5 if the first edition of 1300 to 1500 copies sold out. The printer probably preserved the first book to prove to any inquiring authorities that it had an imprimatur. It is the only surviving manuscript of Paradise Lost, and it is not the manuscript that was produced by dictation. A great deal of care obviously went into producing this copy for the printer, as five recognizably different hands made small corrections. Even so, the 798 lines of manuscript differ from the printed text in over a thousand places, suggesting that the printer may have made further changes, or that Milton and his team of assistants intervened at the printing stage as well.
Milton, Paradise Lost: A Poem in Ten Books (Printed by S. Simmons, and are to be sold by T. Helder at the Angel in Little Brittain, 1669)Milton's Paradise Lost appeared first in 1667, and it was reissued in the following year with a polemical "Note on the Verse," which was written in response to readers who demanded to know why the epic was written in blank verse (unrhymed iambic pentameter). The printer, Samuel Simmons, son of the printer who had printed his radical polemical tracts, was unable to sell all the copies of the original print run, so he repackaged the epic with an explanatory note.
Inscription to William Wordsworth, Paradise Lost (1669)This copy of Paradise Lost seems to have been owned by the great Romantic poet William Wordsworth. Like many Romantics, Wordsworth was profoundly influenced by Milton. He began his epic experiment The Prelude (final version, 1850) using the words at the end of Paradise Lost.
Milton, Paradise Lost: A Poem in Twelve Books, revised and augmented by the same author (Printed by S. Simmons next door to the Golden Lion in Aldersgate-street, 1674)For the second edition of Paradise Lost Milton divided the ten books to make twelve, in part to mirror the structure of Virgil's Aeneid. The octavo version appeared in July 1674, and Milton died in November.
Joannis Miltoni Angli, De Doctrina Christiana libri duo posthumi: quos ex schedis manuscriptis deprompsit, et typis mandari primus curavit (London, 1825)The manuscript of Milton's longest surviving work, De Doctrina Christiana (London, National Archives, SP 9/16), was discovered in 1823. It was, Milton wrote in the introduction, his "best and richest possession." Yet it languished for over a century in a state of near oblivion. Milton probably hoped that it would be possible to publish the treatise, but the views in it were considered heretical by his contemporaries, and when the Restoration of the monarchy occurred in 1660, Milton and his views fell under a shadow of scrutiny. He probably sought to hide the manuscript at the Restoration. If the manuscript of De Doctrina Christiana had not been discovered, our understanding of Milton's theological beliefs would stand on far more speculative grounds, and in many cases take an entirely different form. This is the first printed edition of Milton's work.
Milton, History of Britain, that part especially now call'd England (London, 1670)This was Milton's longest published work of prose, and a major (if now neglected) undertaking. He had meant to write a history of England all the way to the present, but could not finish it. Edward Phillips records in his biography that in 1670 Milton "finisht and publisht his History of our Nation till the conquest, all compleat so far as he went, some Passages only excepted, which, being thought too sharp against the Clergy, could not pass the Hand of the Licencer, were in the Hands of the Late Earl of Anglesey while he liv'd; where at present is uncertain." Whether the manuscript of "The Digression," a section cut from the History, was part of those censored passages remains uncertain; it was almost certainly censored (or self-censored) for its content.
Milton, Poems, &c. upon several occasions...with a small tractate of education to Mr. Hartlib (London, 1673)Milton's final collection of poetry, missing only four political sonnets.
Joannis Miltoni Angli, Artis Logicæ Plenior Instituto: ad Petri Rami Methodum Concinnata (London, Spenser Hickman, 1672)A textbook on logic that Milton had written in the 1640s, when he had run a small academy. The frontispiece engraving of Milton is by William Dolle.
Joannis Miltonii Angli, Epistolarum familiarum liber unus: qvibvs accesserunt, ejusdem, jam olim in collegio adolescentis, prolusiones quædam oratoriæ (London, 1674)Milton's collected letters.
Essays in Literary History, Presented to J. Milton French. ed. by Rudolf Kirk and C.F. Main. (New Brunswick, NJ: Rutgers University Press, 1960)J. Milton French, Professor of English at Rutgers, 1940-1960. Frontispiece photo by David P. French.
